{"id":3988,"date":"2013-10-17T14:33:00","date_gmt":"2013-10-17T13:33:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/?p=3988"},"modified":"2014-10-09T18:51:02","modified_gmt":"2014-10-09T17:51:02","slug":"review-the-intelligence-of-dogs","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/2013\/10\/review-the-intelligence-of-dogs\/","title":{"rendered":"Review: The intelligence of dogs"},"content":{"rendered":"

The Intelligence of Dogs A Guide to the Thoughts, Emotions, and Inner Lives of Our Canine Companions Stanley Coren 320p<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

This book is not very technical, has almost no numbers or sources in it. It contains a wealth of at times funny anecdotes. It also contains references to shitty science, mostly Gardner and Sternberg’s anti-g theories. It also has a wrong description of crytallized vs. fluid g. However, aside from all these flaws, it is well worth reading if one is interested in dog (canine) intelligence. I would have liked to see e.g. a factor analysis of the author’s proposed dog IQ test, to see if there is g factor for dogs as well.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

—<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

As a psychologist, dog trainer, and avowed dog lover, I set out to de\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

scribe the mental abilities that are present in every dog. I also went <\/span><\/p>\n

one step further\u2014namely, to explore how various breeds differ in their <\/span><\/p>\n

capacities and behaviors. Before I could do this, though, a bit of <\/span><\/p>\n

groundwork was in order. I began by looking at the origins of dogs, <\/span><\/p>\n

because any animal\u2019s mental ability is shaped and limited by its bio\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

logical makeup and the forces of evolution that have worked on it. <\/span><\/p>\n

Then I briefly examined how scientists have viewed dogs\u2019 minds and <\/span><\/p>\n

detailed some of the controversy about the nature of the canine mind <\/span><\/p>\n

and consciousness. Finally, I looked at the various types of dog intelli\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

gence and described how dog owners could actually measure their <\/span><\/p>\n

own dog\u2019s abilities. While I hoped to make it clear that no breed of <\/span><\/p>\n

dog is without merit or purpose, I also pointed out that not all dog <\/span><\/p>\n

breeds are created equal in terms of their cleverness and mental skills.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Starts out well.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

And then there was Lassie. . . .<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The dog that may have done the most to shape the popular concep\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tion of dogs and their intelligence was a ch ara cter born in a short story <\/span><\/p>\n

wri tten by Eric Knight in 1938. This story was la te r expanded into a <\/span><\/p>\n

best-selling book, and, in 1943, it was translated into a heart-warming <\/span><\/p>\n

tear jerker of a film called Lassie Come Home. Lassie, the wo r ld \u2019s best- <\/span><\/p>\n

known collie, was not only affectionate and courageous but clearly <\/span><\/p>\n

nearly human in her intelligence and understanding.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Actually, Lassie, as portrayed on the screen, is not a lovely female <\/span><\/p>\n

dog at all, but ra th e r a deception perpetrated by a long line of female <\/span><\/p>\n

impersonators. For nine generations, the dogs that have played Lassie <\/span><\/p>\n

have all been male descendants of the first Lassie, actually a dog named <\/span><\/p>\n

Pal. Male collies were preferred for the part, since they are larger and <\/span><\/p>\n

less timid than females. The viewing audience seems never to have <\/span><\/p>\n

noticed the relevant anatomical differences. In fact, all we seemed to <\/span><\/p>\n

notice was th a t the dog we were watching was a collie with a white <\/span><\/p>\n

blaze on its face. Changes in markings as one dog was substituted for <\/span><\/p>\n

another for different stunts and tricks seem to have passed us by, just as <\/span><\/p>\n

easily as the telltale signs that should have told us Lassie was a lad.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

heh!<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

At first glance, seventeen thousand years may not seem like a long <\/span><\/p>\n

time\u2014after all, dinosaurs roamed the e arth one hundred fifty million <\/span><\/p>\n

years ago. Yet our own species, Homo sapiens, did not ap pea r until <\/span><\/p>\n

three hundred thousand years ago. Neanderthal man was still predom\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

inant in Europe until forty thousand years ago, and the first types of <\/span><\/p>\n

humans physically indistinguishable from modern humans appeared <\/span><\/p>\n

between thirty and thirty-five thousand years ago. Asian tribes first <\/span><\/p>\n

crossed the Bering Strai t to begin human occupation of the Americas <\/span><\/p>\n

twenty-five thousand years ago. It is interesting to note that the first <\/span><\/p>\n

evidence of organized agriculture is only ten thousand years old\u2014 <\/span><\/p>\n

which is three to seven thousand years after the ea rliest proof that <\/span><\/p>\n

dogs had established their companionship with humans. Falling within <\/span><\/p>\n

the same general time frame as these Russian fossils is a finding in <\/span><\/p>\n

Iraq of domesticated dog remains th a t are dated at around fourteen <\/span><\/p>\n

thousand years ago.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

This date for modern humans is wrong.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anatomically_modern_humans<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The term <\/span>anatomically modern humans<\/strong><\/span>[1]<\/a> (<\/span>AMH<\/strong><\/span>) or <\/span>anatomically modern <\/strong><\/span>Homo sapiens<\/strong><\/em><\/span>[2]<\/a> (<\/span>AMHS<\/strong><\/span>) refers in paleoanthropology<\/a> to individual members of the species <\/span>Homo sapiens<\/em><\/span><\/a> with an appearance<\/a> consistent with the range<\/a> of phenotypes<\/a> in modern humans<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Anatomically-modern humans evolved from archaic <\/span>Homo sapiens<\/em><\/span> in the Middle Paleolithic<\/a>, about 200,000 years ago.[3]<\/a> The emergence of anatomically-modern human marks the dawn of the subspecies <\/span>Homo sapiens sapiens<\/strong><\/em><\/span>,[4]<\/a> i.e. the subspecies of <\/span>Homo sapiens<\/em><\/span> that includes all modern humans. The oldest fossil remains of anatomically-modern humans are the Omo remains<\/a>, which date to 195,000 (\u00b15,000) years ago and include two partial skulls as well as arm, leg, foot and pelvis bones.[5]<\/a>[6]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Other fossils include the proposed <\/span>Homo sapiens idaltu<\/em><\/span><\/a> from Herto<\/a> in Ethiopia<\/a> that are almost 160,000 years old<\/a>[7]<\/a> and remains from Skhul<\/a> in Israel that are 90,000 years old.[8]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

—<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

When mitochondrial DNA from dogs and wolves are compared, <\/span><\/p>\n

they are found to differ by only around 1 to 2 percent. To give you an <\/span><\/p>\n

idea of how close this similarity is, this is in the same range as the dif\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ferences found between different races of humans. Scientists consider <\/span><\/p>\n

this to be clear evidence th a t the closest anc estor of dogs, and the <\/span><\/p>\n

species th a t was probably domesticated first, was the wolf. Please note <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t I said the “closest\u201d and not necessarily the \u201conly\u201d ancestor of dogs <\/span><\/p>\n

was the wolf.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

very interesting, if true. No source given.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Searching a bit…<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

https:\/\/www.jstage.jst.go.jp\/article\/ggs\/72\/4\/72_4_229\/_article<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

To test the hypothesis that the domestic dogs are derived from several different ancestral gray wolf populations, we compared the sequence of the displacement (D)-loop region of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 24 breeds of domestic dog (34 individual dogs) and 3 subspecies of gray wolf (Canis lupus lupus, C. l. pallipes<\/em> and C. l. chanco<\/em>; 19 individuals). The intraspecific sequence variations within domestic dogs (0.00~3.19%) and within wolves (0.00~2.88%) were comparable to the interspecific variations between domestic dogs and wolves (0.30~3.35%). A repetitive sequence with repeat units (TACACGTA\/GCG) that causes the size variation in the D-loop region was also found in both dogs and wolves. However, no nucleotide substitutions or repetitive arrays were specific for domestic dogs or for wolves. These results showed that there is a close genetic relationship between dogs and wolves. Two major clades appeared in the phylogenetic trees constructed by neighbor-joining and by the maximum parsimony method; one clade containing Chinese wolf (C. l. chanco<\/em>) showed extensive variations while the other showed only slight variation. This showed that there were two major genetic components both in domestic dogs and in wolves. However, neither clades nor haplotypes specific for any dog breed were observed, whereas subspecies-specific clades were found in Asiatic wolves. These results suggested that the extant breeds of domestic dogs have maintained a large degree of mtDNA polymorphisms introduced from their ancestral wolf populations, and that extensive interbreedings had occurred among multiple matriarchal origins. <\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

So, yea, something like that.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

An interesting rep o r t of some Russian rese arch on foxes directly<\/p>\n

bears on the issue of the domestication of dogs. The experiment was <\/span><\/p>\n

started in the 1940s by the Russian geneticist Dmitri Belyaev, who <\/span><\/p>\n

worked in a Siberian laboratory with other biologists who were trying <\/span><\/p>\n

to domesticate silver foxes. Their aim was pract ical as w’ell as scien\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tific, since they wanted to breed these animals for th e ir beautiful fur, <\/span><\/p>\n

which brings a high price on the world market. Since the wild fox can <\/span><\/p>\n

be qu i te sn a p p ish an d ch u r l ish , th e sc ien t is ts w e re also try in g to c re a te <\/span><\/p>\n

a more docile strain of silver foxes th a t would allow themselves to be <\/span><\/p>\n

handled and more easily managed. For this reason, only the most gen\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tle of the foxes were allowed to breed. Over a span of only twenty gen\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

erations, the scientists managed to develop tame, domesticated foxes.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Several surprises resulted from these breeding experiments. In their <\/span><\/p>\n

behavior, these tame foxes became very doglike. They began to look for <\/span><\/p>\n

human company ra th e r than running from it. They began to wag their <\/span><\/p>\n

tails in response to the same types of situations th a t cause domestic <\/span><\/p>\n

dogs to wag their tails. They also developed a tendency to lick people\u2019s <\/span><\/p>\n

faces. These domesticated foxes also began to vocalize with yips and <\/span><\/p>\n

barks much like dogs and quite unlike adul t wild foxes and wolves, <\/span><\/p>\n

which seldom vocalize. There were even important physical changes. <\/span><\/p>\n

Females began to come into heat twice a year, ju s t as domestic dogs <\/span><\/p>\n

do. The ears of some of the foxes became floppy and more doglike. <\/span><\/p>\n

Unfortunately for the experimenters, also following the p a t te rn for <\/span><\/p>\n

domestic dogs, these tamed foxes were often born with fur th a t was <\/span><\/p>\n

multicolored with patches of different shades, which greatly lowered <\/span><\/p>\n

their market value!<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The domesticated silver fox experiment:<\/p>\n

http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domesticated_silver_fox<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Original source: http:\/\/www.americanscientist.org\/issues\/feature\/1999\/2\/early-canid-domestication-the-farm-fox-experiment<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

All canids also enjoy an occasional roll in ca r rio n and other foul\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

smelling filth. It is likely that this behavior began as a hunting strategy. <\/span><\/p>\n

Many prey animals, such as antelopes or gazelles, have a good sense of <\/span><\/p>\n

smell and can detect an approaching canine predator. However, by <\/span><\/p>\n

rolling in antelope or gazelle droppings, which of course give off a <\/span><\/p>\n

safe, familiar smell, the h un te r masks its scent and so can get much <\/span><\/p>\n

closer before he is detected.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In domestic dogs this behavior is no longer functional, but seems to <\/span><\/p>\n

have persisted because dogs have an aesthetic appreciation of odors, <\/span><\/p>\n

which some experts have compared to our own fondness for music; it <\/span><\/p>\n

has no real purpose but seems to give the dog pleasure. Some owners <\/span><\/p>\n

find the practice offensive and have tried to eliminate it by punishing <\/span><\/p>\n

their dogs, but this generally is to no avail. Occasionally, one can find a <\/span><\/p>\n

perfume or other scent th a t the dog likes (usually one with a musk <\/span><\/p>\n

base), w h ich , w h e n d ab b e d on e i th e r sid e of the dog\u2019s th roa t and <\/span><\/p>\n

behind its ears, may cause the dog to pass up opportunit ies to roll in <\/span><\/p>\n

the n eares t pile of dung or o th e r smelly refuse. This sometimes back\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

fires, however.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

My daughter by marriage, Kari, had a marvelous mixed-breed dog <\/span><\/p>\n

named Tessa, whom we often took along when we went to our little <\/span><\/p>\n

hideaway farm. At the re a r of the farm is a large drainage canal, <\/span><\/p>\n

which, at various times of the year, takes on a ra th e r pungent odor if <\/span><\/p>\n

st irred up. When the canal reached this pitch of smelliness, Tessa <\/span><\/p>\n

always took the very first opportunity to plunge into the canal and coat <\/span><\/p>\n

herself in the muck. This always resulted in our hosing her down and <\/span><\/p>\n

then leaving h e r outside for several hours until the essence wore off. <\/span><\/p>\n

Once, p r io r to a morning walk, I decided to see if I could avoid the <\/span><\/p>\n

inevitable wallow in the smelly canal by p re trea ting her with some <\/span><\/p>\n

aftershave lotion th a t smelled quite fine to me. She seemed a bit puz\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

zled by all of this, and when I opened the gate, instead of the usual <\/span><\/p>\n

chase-the-stick romp th a t starts our walks, she made a direct beeline <\/span><\/p>\n

for the scum-filled canal. She re tu rn ed afterward, soaking wet and <\/span><\/p>\n

odoriferous, ready to start our play. Apparently she felt a need to mask<\/span><\/p>\n

her uncharacteristically perfumed aura with something more aestheti\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

cally pleasing to her canine mind.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Interesting.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Much of the interbreeding across the canid species has been delib\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

erately encouraged or arranged by human beings. Eskimos and natives <\/span><\/p>\n

of the high north are known to cross th eir working dogs regularly with <\/span><\/p>\n

wolves to try to get sled dogs with g re a ter stamina and larger size. <\/span><\/p>\n

Usually this process involves tying a bitch in season to a stake in a <\/span><\/p>\n

region th a t wolves are known to frequent. An interested male wolf will <\/span><\/p>\n

often stop and partake of such an opportunity, and the bitches seem to <\/span><\/p>\n

accept the at tention willingly. Of course, when times are h a rd e r and <\/span><\/p>\n

food is scarce, the bitch may be viewed as a candidate for lunch, rather <\/span><\/p>\n

than love, by the wolf pack.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

*Chuckle*<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Suppose we knew th a t one pa rt icula r member of the canid family (call <\/span><\/p>\n

it canid X) was the sole ancestor of domestic dogs. You might think <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t this would allow us to say th a t if canid X has a certain behavior or <\/span><\/p>\n

shows a specific mental ability, the same behavior and mental ability <\/span><\/p>\n

must exist in dogs. Sadly, this would not be true. Even if domestic dogs <\/span><\/p>\n

contained the genes of only one of the wild canids, they would not be <\/span><\/p>\n

simply tamed versions of the wild variety. The process of domestication <\/span><\/p>\n

itself has made dogs different, not only physically but also psychologi\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

cally, from their wild cousins.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In breeding dogs, people have systematically selected for puppylike <\/span><\/p>\n

characteristics. The technical term for this is neoteny, meaning th a t the <\/span><\/p>\n

adul t maintains many of the chara c te rist ic s of the immature animal. <\/span><\/p>\n

This neoteny involves both physiology and behavior in the animals.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

and also humans: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neoteny<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Behaviorally, our domestic dogs are also more puppylike. When<\/span><\/p>\n

dogs lick people\u2019s faces, as most domestic dogs will, they are actually <\/span><\/p>\n

mimicking the behavior of puppies, who will lick their m o th er \u2019s face to <\/span><\/p>\n

get h e r to regurgitate food for them. Hence your dog\u2019s kisses really <\/span><\/p>\n

mean th a t it is trea tin g you as its p a ren t and, of course, asking for a <\/span><\/p>\n

snack.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

A colleague of mine has pointed out th a t a book with the title The Intel\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ligence o f Dogs could be very short. He noted that, as a psychologist, I <\/span><\/p>\n

could simply choose to define intelligence, or at least thought, as some\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

thing th a t occurs only in humans, and this would spare me a lot of <\/span><\/p>\n

work and research time. Many psychologists, biologists, and ethologists <\/span><\/p>\n

(particularly those who like to call themselves \u201cbehaviorists\u201d) do exactly <\/span><\/p>\n

this. For instance, in a recent research book entitled Cognitive Psychol\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ogy and Information Processing, three research psychologists (R. Lach- <\/span><\/p>\n

man, J. L. Lachman, and E. R. Butterfield) conclude th a t “whenever <\/span><\/p>\n

higher mental processes are involved, we heartily disagree that human <\/span><\/p>\n

and animal behavior are necessarily governed by the same principles.\u201d <\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The situation is not simple, however, and many eminent scientists <\/span><\/p>\n

have disagreed with this ra th e r negative conclusion. Charles Darwin, <\/span><\/p>\n

for example, wrote in The Descent o f Man that the only difference <\/span><\/p>\n

between the intelligence of humans and th a t of most of th e ir lower <\/span><\/p>\n

mammalian cousins “is one of degree and not of k in d.\u201d He went on to <\/span><\/p>\n

say that \u201cthe senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, <\/span><\/p>\n

such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of<\/span><\/p>\n

which man boasts, may be found in an incipient or even sometimes in <\/span><\/p>\n

a well-developed condition, in the lower animals.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Obviously, ne i th er Darwin nor any sensible person will try to say <\/span><\/p>\n

that the intelligence of dogs is the same as that of humans in all ways. <\/span><\/p>\n

There are clear limits to a dog\u2019s intelligence. A dog has never written <\/span><\/p>\n

an o pera or novel n o r ever designed bridges or explored cybernetic <\/span><\/p>\n

theory. No dog has ever been elected as a president or p rem ier of a <\/span><\/p>\n

country (except in an uncomplimentary metaphoric sense, as defined <\/span><\/p>\n

by the opposition parties).<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

As I write this, it dawns on me that I might be wise to stay away from <\/span><\/p>\n

the subject of dogs occupying political posts, since there are stories of <\/span><\/p>\n

dog-kings. Probably the best known of these comes from an Icelandic <\/span><\/p>\n

saga th a t tells of an upland king known as Eystein the Bad. Eystein con\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

quered the people of Drontheim and then made his son Onund their <\/span><\/p>\n

king. The people of Drontheim were not at all happy with this a rrange\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ment and ended Onund\u2019s reign abruptly and violently. To show his dis\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

pleasure at this turn of events, Eystein returned to Drontheim, ravaged <\/span><\/p>\n

the land, and reduced the people to total subjugation. Then, to cap his <\/span><\/p>\n

vengeance, he offered the survivors a truly dishonorable choice: They <\/span><\/p>\n

would be ruled either by one of Eystein\u2019s slaves or by one of his dogs. <\/span><\/p>\n

The people of Drontheim apparently felt that they could more easily <\/span><\/p>\n

manipulate the decisions of the dog. As kings go, the dog (whose name <\/span><\/p>\n

was Saur) was apparently not a bad ruler. The saga claims th a t the dog <\/span><\/p>\n

“had the wisdom of three men.\u201d It also reports that the dog “spoke one <\/span><\/p>\n

word for every two that it barked,\u201d presumably meaning that it had dif\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ferent whimpers, growls, and other sounds that were interpreted as sig\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

nifying different ideas and moods. The people responded by according <\/span><\/p>\n

the dog all the expected pomp and ceremony that are due to a ruler. <\/span><\/p>\n

They furnished him with a throne, so that he “sat upon a high place as <\/span><\/p>\n

kings are wont to sit.\u201d They also provided him with regal apparel, such <\/span><\/p>\n

as a gold collar. His attendants or courtiers, whose duty it was to carry <\/span><\/p>\n

their canine king on their shoulders whenever the weather turned bad, <\/span><\/p>\n

wore silver chains to signify th eir office.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Unfortunately, the story ends ra th e r badly, with what has always <\/span><\/p>\n

appeared to me to be the culmination of some form of plot or a secret <\/span><\/p>\n

revolt against the dog-king. Obviously, such a revolt could not simply <\/span><\/p>\n

involve assassination, since this might make Eystein suspicious and <\/span><\/p>\n

cause him to re tu rn to mete out fur ther vengeance and perhaps even<\/span><\/p>\n

to appoint a still less desirable king. Instead, the plotters capitalized on <\/span><\/p>\n

a chance occurrence. One day, wolves broke into the royal cattle pens. <\/span><\/p>\n

Instead of calling for help from the men-at-arms, the court iers ( trai\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tors?) rallied the dog-king to defend his livestock. With all of the brav\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ery th a t the sagas accord to one born into royalty, he immediately <\/span><\/p>\n

mounted an attack, but, being badly outnumbered, he was killed in <\/span><\/p>\n

battle. Thus ended the reign of Saur, the canine king.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

There are also things like: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sergeant_Stubby<\/a>,<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Primitive people, however, had no problem allowing dogs to have <\/span><\/p>\n

intelligence and even suggested they had speech. For example, when <\/span><\/p>\n

Europeans began to colonize the African Congo, they encountered <\/span><\/p>\n

many indigenous stories about the dog as the bringer of fire, the great <\/span><\/p>\n

hunter, and even as a teacher. A typical example comes from the <\/span><\/p>\n

Nyanga people, whose folk hero Nkhango supposedly negotiated for <\/span><\/p>\n

fire with the dog Rukuba: The dog would steal some fire from the high <\/span><\/p>\n

god Nyamurairi in exchange for eternal friendship from humans. After <\/span><\/p>\n

keeping his p a r t of the bargain, Rukuba joined with Nkhango on the <\/span><\/p>\n

hunt, and together they achieved grea t success, even against danger \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ous prey, such as the wild boar. As the dog\u2019s cleverness became more <\/span><\/p>\n

and more obvious, Nkhango learned to tru s t him with even more <\/span><\/p>\n

tasks. Finally, Nkhango made a decision to use the dog as a messenger. <\/span><\/p>\n

Rukuba, however, did not want to be a messenger; he wanted to lie by <\/span><\/p>\n

the fire in comfort, and, since he was the one who had supplied the fire <\/span><\/p>\n

in the first place, he felt that it was his right to do so. Musing th a t peo\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ple would always be sending him to this place o r th a t on errands, <\/span><\/p>\n

because he was clever and trustworthy and could speak, the dog <\/span><\/p>\n

Rukuba concluded, \u201cIf I could not speak, then I could not be a messen\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ger. So I will simply never speak again!\u201d From that day on, the dog of <\/span><\/p>\n

the Nyanga ceased speaking; he still has the intelligence and capacity <\/span><\/p>\n

to do so but simply chooses not to.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Unfortunately, when Descartes threw out intellect, reason, and con\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

sciousness for animals, it had more than scientific and intellectual con\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

sequences. In denying animals these higher mental abilities, Descartes <\/span><\/p>\n

also denied them feeling and emotion. According to him, the cry an <\/span><\/p>\n

animal releases when struck does not indicate pain but is ra th e r the <\/span><\/p>\n

equivalent of the clanging of springs or chimes you might h e a r after <\/span><\/p>\n

you drop a mechanical clock or some wind-up toy. Nicolas de Male- <\/span><\/p>\n

branche, a French philosopher who extended Descartes’s work, picked <\/span><\/p>\n

up on this idea when he claimed th a t animals \u201ceat without pleasure, <\/span><\/p>\n

cry’ without pain, act without knowing it; they desire nothing, fear <\/span><\/p>\n

nothing, know nothing.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The upshot was that Descartes\u2019s analysis was subsequently used to <\/span><\/p>\n

justify massive cruelty to animals. B e rn a rd le Bovier de Fontenelle <\/span><\/p>\n

once visited Malebranche a t the Oratory on the rue Saint-Honore. <\/span><\/p>\n

While they were conversing, he saw Malebranche kick a p regnant dog <\/span><\/p>\n

who had been rolling at his feet. The dog let out a cry of pain, and <\/span><\/p>\n

Fontenelle sprang forward to defend it. Malebranche passed the inci\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

dent off, saying \u201cDon\u2019t you know th a t it does not feel?\u201d In due time, <\/span><\/p>\n

such reasoning led to experiments where animals were nailed to <\/span><\/p>\n

boards by their four paws in order to do surgery on them to see the cir\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

culatory system working in a live being. People who pitied the poor <\/span><\/p>\n

creatures for their pain were laughed at as unknowing fools. After all, <\/span><\/p>\n

these were not to be considered sentient and feeling creatures; they <\/span><\/p>\n

were only machines being disassembled for study. Accordingly, moral <\/span><\/p>\n

concern was inappropriate, since the pain and suffering of animals <\/span><\/p>\n

were not real.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

One might be tempted to dismiss these attitudes as the unenlight\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ened thinking of the past. However, viewpoints ju s t this extreme are <\/span><\/p>\n

still found today, nearly three hun d red fifty years after Descartes\u2019s <\/span><\/p>\n

theorizing. For instance, P. Carruthers, in the prestigious Journal o f <\/span><\/p>\n

Philosophy, recently wrote of animals that, “since th e ir experiences, <\/span><\/p>\n

including th e ir pains, are nonconscious ones, th e ir pains are of no <\/span><\/p>\n

immediate moral concern. Indeed, since all of the mental states of <\/span><\/p>\n

brutes are nonconscious, their injuries are lacking even in indirect <\/span><\/p>\n

moral concern.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

It is interesting to note that scientists and philosophers with these <\/span><\/p>\n

views often act and believe quite differently in their personal lives. The <\/span><\/p>\n

extreme notion th a t only humans have consciousness and intelligence <\/span><\/p>\n

and th a t only human pain and suffering is of any significance is ap pa r \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ently much more difficult to hold in private life, especially if one is liv\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ing with a pet animal. For example, history tells us that Descartes had <\/span><\/p>\n

a dog named Monsieur Grat\u2014quite a pampered pet, to whom <\/span><\/p>\n

Descartes spoke in the same manner th a t we speak to our own dogs. <\/span><\/p>\n

He worried about the dog\u2019s health and referred to things that the dog <\/span><\/p>\n

liked o r did not like and sometimes privately speculated on what the <\/span><\/p>\n

dog might be thinking. So much concern for an unconscious machine? <\/span><\/p>\n

Would one talk to a machine such as a wristwatch and speculate on its <\/span><\/p>\n

health and its likes? Obviously, in Descartes\u2019s everyday interactions, <\/span><\/p>\n

the presumption of consciousness for his dog was not only convenient, <\/span><\/p>\n

but perhaps unavoidable.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Dont claim that filosofical beliefs have no effects on peoples behavior!<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

There is also Clarence Darrow: http:\/\/www.sfu.ca\/~swartz\/freewill1.htm#intro<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

I initially wrote this chapter during a very gray and rainy spring. The <\/span><\/p>\n

day I finished it, more than a week had gone by without any noticeable <\/span><\/p>\n

sunshine. That p a rt icular afternoon, though, the clouds seemed to part <\/span><\/p>\n

and a burs t of afternoon sunshine shone through the window, forming <\/span><\/p>\n

a big golden patch on the hardwood floor. Completing my work, I was <\/span><\/p>\n

moving toward the kitchen to get a cup of coffee when I noticed my <\/span><\/p>\n

Cavalier King Charles spaniel Wiz standing in the circle of light. He <\/span><\/p>\n

looked up at the window and then down at the floor as if he were con\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

templating something, and then he deliberately tu rned and ran from <\/span><\/p>\n

the room. Within a mat te r of moments, however, he re appeared drag\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ging a large terry-cloth towel th a t he had stolen from the bathroom. <\/span><\/p>\n

He pulled the towel into the cente r of the patch of sun, looked at it, <\/span><\/p>\n

and then pushed at one lumpy section with both front paws. Having <\/span><\/p>\n

ar ranged the towel to his satisfaction, he then circled around and set\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tled down for a nap on his newly created bed in the warm afternoon <\/span><\/p>\n

sun. If one of my young grandchi ldren had done this, I would have <\/span><\/p>\n

said th a t she felt the warmth of the sun and thought that it would be <\/span><\/p>\n

nice to take a nap in it. Then, remembering the towel in the bathroom, <\/span><\/p>\n

she went and retrieved it so that she could sunbathe more comfortably.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

All this requires consciousness, intelligence, and planning. Does ray <\/span><\/p>\n

dog Wiz have it? It is easier for me simply to recognize th a t my dog\u2019s <\/span><\/p>\n

behaviors in this situation were similar to behaviors th a t are accompa\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

nied by consciousness in a human faced with the same situation. In the <\/span><\/p>\n

absence of any evidence to the contrary, I will presume th a t I am deal\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ing with consciousness and intelligent behavior in my dog as well.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

It seems to me that people requiring better evidence than this are setting an unreasonably high evidential standard.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Dogs can go even further than these kinds of assessments, to a point <\/span><\/p>\n

where virtually everyone would concede th a t they are really counting. <\/span><\/p>\n

One spring afternoon, I was part icipating in a dog obedience tr ial on <\/span><\/p>\n

Vancouver Island in Bri tish Columbia, Canada. One of the o ther dog <\/span><\/p>\n

competitors and I had finished for the day, and we were out walking in <\/span><\/p>\n

a large nearby field with his lovely female Labrador retriever named <\/span><\/p>\n

Poco. The man had a box of large rubber retrieving lures with him, <\/span><\/p>\n

and he explained to me that he would use these to demonstrate that his <\/span><\/p>\n

dog could count.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

“She can count to four quite reliably and to five with only an occa\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

sional miss,\u201d he said. \u201cI’ll show you how it works. Pick a number from <\/span><\/p>\n

one to five.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

I picked the number three. While the dog watched, her master <\/span><\/p>\n

tossed three lures out into the high grass of the field. The lures were <\/span><\/p>\n

tossed in different directions and to different distances. After I got <\/span><\/p>\n

down on my hands and knees and verified that the lures were not visi\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ble from the dog\u2019s eye level at the starting position, my companion <\/span><\/p>\n

simply told the dog, \u201cPoco, fetch,\u201d without pointing or other cues. The <\/span><\/p>\n

dog went out to the most recently thrown lure, picked it up, and <\/span><\/p>\n

brought it back. Her master took it from h e r and then repeated \u201cPoco, <\/span><\/p>\n

fetch,\u201d causing the dog to s ta r t to cast about and search for the next <\/span><\/p>\n

one. After she brought back the second lure, her master again com\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

manded, “Poco, fetch,\u201d and the dog went out after the th ird and last <\/span><\/p>\n

lure. Removing the last lure from the dog\u2019s mouth, he once again <\/span><\/p>\n

ordered, “Poco, fetch.\u201d At this, the dog simply looked at him, barked <\/span><\/p>\n

once, and moved to his left side, to the usual heel position, and sat <\/span><\/p>\n

down.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

He then turned to me and said, “She knows th a t she\u2019s retrieved all <\/span><\/p>\n

three and that that is all there were. She keeps a running count. When<\/span><\/p>\n

there are no more lures to search for, she lets me know with th a t <\/span><\/p>\n

\u2018They’re all here, stupid\u2019 bark and simply gets ready for the next thing <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t I want her to d o .\u2019\u2019<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

We repeated the exercise for the bet ter p a rt of a half hour, varying <\/span><\/p>\n

the number of lures up to five, with me and another spectator tossing <\/span><\/p>\n

the lures and sending the dog to fetch as sort of a check to see if some\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

thing hidden in the way the items were placed or the commands given <\/span><\/p>\n

accounted for h e r success. Once we even had someone toss out a set of <\/span><\/p>\n

lures in such a way that the dog saw where they landed but the person <\/span><\/p>\n

giving Poco commands didn\u2019t know how many lures were thrown and <\/span><\/p>\n

therefore couldn\u2019t give any covert clues to the dog like those Clever <\/span><\/p>\n

Hans used in his counting tricks. None of these variations seemed to <\/span><\/p>\n

matter, and even at five, the dog never missed the count once.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Dogs even seem to have a rudimentary ability to add and subtract. <\/span><\/p>\n

Robert Young of the Pontifical Catholic University in Brazil and <\/span><\/p>\n

Rebecca West of the University of Lincoln in the United Kingdom used <\/span><\/p>\n

a modified version of a test designed to determine that young humans <\/span><\/p>\n

have such abilities. First the dog is shown a large treat, then a low <\/span><\/p>\n

screen is p u t in front of it to block the dog\u2019s view. While the dog <\/span><\/p>\n

watches, the experimenter takes another treat, shows it to the dog, and <\/span><\/p>\n

then lowers it down behind the screen. If the dog can count, he should <\/span><\/p>\n

expect th a t when the screen is raised he should see two treats, and <\/span><\/p>\n

sometimes he does. However, sometimes the experimenter secretly <\/span><\/p>\n

removes one of the treats so that now when the screen is raised there <\/span><\/p>\n

is only one t re a t visible. Thus instead of the expected 1 + 1=2, the <\/span><\/p>\n

dog is presented with 1 + 1 = 1. Alternatively the experimenter can <\/span><\/p>\n

secretly add an additional treat, giving the dog the result 1 + 1=3. <\/span><\/p>\n

When any of the wrong answers appear, the dog reacts by staring at <\/span><\/p>\n

the results for a much longer time than he does if the expected 1 + 1 <\/span><\/p>\n

= 2 appears. This is taken as evidence of surprise and puzzlement on <\/span><\/p>\n

the p a r t of the dog, suggesting th a t he has done the mental addition <\/span><\/p>\n

and know’s what the correct result should be. Such an ability would be <\/span><\/p>\n

useful for mother dogs, which would then know if one or more of their <\/span><\/p>\n

pups has gone missing from the litter, and by inference she would also <\/span><\/p>\n

know how many of them were gone and must be found.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Creative experiment design. :) +1 for science<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Recently a border collie named Rico was tested by Julia Fischer and <\/span><\/p>\n

o ther psychologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary <\/span><\/p>\n

Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. They found that he could u n d e r \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

stand over two hun d red words, most of w^hich corresponded to the <\/span><\/p>\n

names of objects. Like a young human child, Rico would quickly form <\/span><\/p>\n

a rough hypothesis about the meaning of a new word after a single <\/span><\/p>\n

exposure by inferring th a t the new word is connected to an object he <\/span><\/p>\n

is seeing for the first time. One example of this is learning by an exclu\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

sionary principle. Suppose th a t we put out seven toys and say to Rico <\/span><\/p>\n

\u201cGo get the fram is.\u201d Rico has never h ea rd the word \u201cf ram is\u201d before. <\/span><\/p>\n

However, he goes out to the pile of objects and finds th a t he knows the <\/span><\/p>\n

name of six of them. He then takes the next step and assumes that the <\/span><\/p>\n

one he doesn\u2019t recognize must be the framis. If we test him later, even <\/span><\/p>\n

weeks later, with a new pile of objects th a t includes the one th a t we <\/span><\/p>\n

labeled the framis, he will quickly identify it. This is a complex form of <\/span><\/p>\n

language learning th a t th a t up to now we thought was possible only in <\/span><\/p>\n

humans and language-learning apes.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

One might wonder if this particular dog was super smart among her breed conspicifics.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The Chinese still tre a t meat from chow chows as a culinary delicacy. <\/span><\/p>\n

According to popular folk belief, dogs with black coats are considered <\/span><\/p>\n

to be more nutritious and to have better fat for frying. It is not difficult <\/span><\/p>\n

to find dog farms, dog butchers, and restau rants th a t specialize in dog <\/span><\/p>\n

meat throughout modern China and its neighboring countries. When <\/span><\/p>\n

the Summer Olympic Games were held in Seoul, South Korea, in <\/span><\/p>\n

1988, the government passed a temporary law forbidding re stau rants <\/span><\/p>\n

in the city limits to serve dishes made with dog meat, fearing th a t such <\/span><\/p>\n

menu items would offend th e ir Western visitors. Because of public <\/span><\/p>\n

pressure, however, shortly after the Olympics had concluded, dog <\/span><\/p>\n

dishes again became available, and dogs could again be seen hanging <\/span><\/p>\n

in local butcher shops.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

If you\u2019re interested in dogs only as a food source, then the question <\/span><\/p>\n

of the ir intelligence is moot. Who wants smar t food? What you want is <\/span><\/p>\n

a slow-moving dog (who won’t b urn off much fat or become tough <\/span><\/p>\n

through exercise or vigorous activity) th a t is not clever enough to make <\/span><\/p>\n

itself h a rd to capture. Thus it is not surprising that the dogs primarily <\/span><\/p>\n

used for food may well have been the re ta rdates of dogdom. It seems <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t virtually every visitor to Polynesia and Micronesia who wrote <\/span><\/p>\n

about the local poi dogs also commented on th eir absence of intelli\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

gence. In A Voyage Around the World (written in 1777), for instance, <\/span><\/p>\n

Johann Georg Adam Forster, one of the naturalists accompanying Cap\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

tain Cook, described the dogs of Polynesia and the South Sea Islands <\/span><\/p>\n

as \u201clazy\u201d and “unintelligent.\u201d Specifically, he commented:<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

This day we dined for the first time on a leg of it [dog] roasted, which <\/span><\/p>\n

tasted so exactly like mutton, that it was absolutely indistinguishable.<\/span><\/p>\n

. . . In New Zealand, and in the tropical isles of the South Sea, the dogs <\/span><\/p>\n

are the most stupid, dull animals imaginable, and do not seem to have <\/span><\/p>\n

the least advantage in point of sagacity over our sheep.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

I have known dogs, especially puppies, who were almost<\/p>\n

as stupid as humans in their mental reactions.<\/p>\n

\u2014ROBERT BENCHLEY<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

No source given. Not mentioned on Wikiquote. https:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Robert_Benchley<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Likely not genuine.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Before I describe what I learned about working or obedience intelli\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

gence from these experts, I had best start with the caution th a t many <\/span><\/p>\n

of them offered. All the judges recognized th a t there were definite dif\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ferences in the intelligence and trainability of the various breeds; how\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ever, they also noted th a t there is a lot of individual variation among <\/span><\/p>\n

dogs. They noted th a t even in the dullest breeds, some dogs work <\/span><\/p>\n

extremely well, while in some of the brightest breeds, certain individu\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

als simply show no capacity to learn or perform. One judge told me, \u201cA <\/span><\/p>\n

lot has to do with the person training the dog. You can s ta r t with a <\/span><\/p>\n

dumb breed and make them really quite clever if you are a good <\/span><\/p>\n

enough trainer.\u201d What this judge was actually describing was manifest<\/span><\/p>\n

intelligence\u2014th a t is, the sum total of all the dimensions of intelligence <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t any dog displays. Ju s t like h uman beings, few dogs ever achieve <\/span><\/p>\n

th e ir full psychological potential. The difference among the various <\/span><\/p>\n

breeds, then, is how easily each can reach a certain level of perform\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ance and what the absolute maximum is th a t a dog of any given breed <\/span><\/p>\n

may be expected to achieve. Good trainers can do a lot with any breed <\/span><\/p>\n

of dog; they ju st find the job much easier if they s ta r t with one that has <\/span><\/p>\n

high working and obedience intelligence.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Seems like a good paragraf to remember to quote in discussions of race and intellignece in humans.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In contemporary writing and discussions, it is considered rude, <\/span><\/p>\n

biased, sexist, and politically incorre ct to refer to sex differences in <\/span><\/p>\n

behavior, personality, or intelligence, especially in humans. Yet there <\/span><\/p>\n

are clearly visible differences between male and female dogs (at least <\/span><\/p>\n

for cer tain breeds) in terms of th e ir problem-solving and obedience <\/span><\/p>\n

performance. Physically, males are often larger, stronger, and more <\/span><\/p>\n

vigorous in th e ir activity th an the females. For some breeds, p a r t icu \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

larly Doberman pinschers and Labrador retrievers, the males perform <\/span><\/p>\n

significantly better in problem-solving tests, such as those presented in <\/span><\/p>\n

Chapter 9. Conversely, females of these breeds tend to do much better <\/span><\/p>\n

in obedience and working tasks. One dog obedience judge, in listing <\/span><\/p>\n

the top ten obedience breeds, noted next to his entry of Doberman pin\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

schers, \u201cfemales only, males tend to be too hard-headed and are more <\/span><\/p>\n

difficult to control.” For some breeds, however, such as the poodle and <\/span><\/p>\n

the English pointer, males are the \u201cso f te r\u201d sex and females are more <\/span><\/p>\n

obstinate and difficult to train.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

wud be interesting with more systematic data.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The case of the Cavalier King Charles spaniel is not unique. Pfaffen- <\/span><\/p>\n

berger kept careful records during his systematic breeding p rogram <\/span><\/p>\n

for guide dogs. Because each dog was tested for both personality and <\/span><\/p>\n

intelligence, this gave a marvelous opportunity to see if these ch a ra c \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

teristics were genetically based. His records show that many personal\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ity characteristics, including the willingness to work for humans, are <\/span><\/p>\n

carried genetically. The personality of a lit ter was directly predictable <\/span><\/p>\n

from the personality of the sire and dam. Pfaffenberger scored the will\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ingness to work using a scale th a t ran from a low of 0 to a high of 5 to <\/span><\/p>\n

keep track of the personalities of the various dogs. In one instance he <\/span><\/p>\n

mated a dog named Odin who scored 5 on this dimension with a bitch, <\/span><\/p>\n

Gretchen, who scored 4. If the temperaments of the parents were <\/span><\/p>\n

passed on to the offspring, then all the re su ltan t puppies would have <\/span><\/p>\n

temperaments falling between these values. Sure enough, when Pfaf\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

fenberger administered tests to the six puppies, he found th a t four of <\/span><\/p>\n

them scored 5 and the remaining two scored 4.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Seems to miss the regression to the mean, and that it might not be entirely polygenetic. But sure, it is mostly polygenetic and regression effects might be small.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_toward_the_mean<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Deafness is more common in dogs than the casual pet owner might <\/span><\/p>\n

recognize. Congenital hearing loss is mostly due to genetic factors. A <\/span><\/p>\n

study by George Strain of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge <\/span><\/p>\n

involving nearly seventeen thousand dogs confirmed th a t coat color is <\/span><\/p>\n

associated with congenital deafness. The genetic defect that produces <\/span><\/p>\n

deafness is closely linked with the genes th a t produce white coats, <\/span><\/p>\n

roan (a dark color coat th a t has been liberally sprinkled with white), <\/span><\/p>\n

merle (desaturated colors, especially where blacks become grays or <\/span><\/p>\n

blues), and piebald (spotty, especially black and white) colors in dogs. <\/span><\/p>\n

The classic example of a piebald dog is the Dalmatian. In this breed, <\/span><\/p>\n

22 percent are deaf in one e ar and an additional 8 percent are deaf in <\/span><\/p>\n

both ears, amounting to an amazing 30 percent born with some form <\/span><\/p>\n

of hearing deficit. While all Dalmatians are more or less piebald, in<\/span><\/p>\n

o ther breeds the white, roan, merle, or piebald genes are found in <\/span><\/p>\n

some individuals but not others. In the bull terrier, for example, indi\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

viduals can be either white o r can have prominent color patches. <\/span><\/p>\n

Among those bull ter r iers who are white, the ra te of congenital deaf\u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

ness is 20 percent, while for those with color patches it is only around<\/span><\/p>\n

1 percent.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

http:\/\/www.aspca.org\/pet-care\/dog-care\/deafness<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

apparently legit.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

If you are systematic about teaching your dog his name, its sound <\/span><\/p>\n

will capture the dog\u2019s attention and he will look at you. This attention <\/span><\/p>\n

is vital when you w an t to teach the dog something or get him to do <\/span><\/p>\n

something. If you are not systematic about teaching a dog its name, <\/span><\/p>\n

then the dog will most likely assume th a t its name is the sound th a t it <\/span><\/p>\n

hears most frequently directed at it by its family. There was a cartoon <\/span><\/p>\n

th a t captured this idea when it depicted two dogs meeting on the <\/span><\/p>\n

street. One introduces himself to the o ther saying, \u201cMy name is \u2018No, <\/span><\/p>\n

No, Bad Dog.\u2019 What\u2019s yours?\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

:p<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

–<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, psychologists made a star-<\/span><\/p>\n

tling discovery. They found that, for many jobs, high intelligence is <\/span><\/p>\n

actually a handicap, especially where work is quite repetitive, where <\/span><\/p>\n

the same actions or decisions are required many times during the day, <\/span><\/p>\n

where work is interspersed with long periods of relative inactivity, or <\/span><\/p>\n

where the rate of work-related activity is slow. Under these conditions, <\/span><\/p>\n

an individual with higher general intelligence is actually apt to p e r \u00ad<\/span><\/p>\n

form worse than one with lower intelligence on a day-to-day basis. Not <\/span><\/p>\n

only will the b righte r person perform less well, b u t he or she will be <\/span><\/p>\n

considerably less satisfied with the work and the job as a whole.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

satisfaction might be lower, but the other is just wrong.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

cf. The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings.<\/p>\n

\n

Schmidt, Frank L.; Hunter, John E.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

Psychological Bulletin, Vol 124(2), Sep 1998, 262-274. doi: 10.1037\/0033-2909.124.2.262<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

http:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/psycinfo\/1998-10661-006<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The Intelligence of Dogs A Guide to the Thoughts, Emotions, and Inner Lives of Our Canine Companions Stanley Coren 320p   This book is not very technical, has almost no numbers or sources in it. It contains a wealth of at times funny anecdotes. It also contains references to shitty science, mostly Gardner and Sternberg’s […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":17,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1839,1746,1690,2591,1653],"tags":[2019,1067],"class_list":["post-3988","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-psychometics","category-evolutionary-biology","category-genetics","category-intelligence-iq-cognitive-ability","category-psychology","tag-dogs","tag-review","entry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3988","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/17"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3988"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3988\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4377,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3988\/revisions\/4377"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3988"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3988"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/emilkirkegaard.dk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3988"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}